Balder's Dreams

 "It is the beginning of this saga, that Baldr the Good dreamed great and threatening dreams about his life" (Gylfaginning).

The dreams of Baldr preceeding his death are famous. They were important enough to prompt a meeting of the gods, sending Óðinn on his futile quest to the underworld. Baldr and dreams go together, but the contents of his dreams are never revealed in the Icelandic textual corpus - but they are in Gesta Danorum.

Balderus and Høtherus

It has long been recognized, that Saxo presents a moral realignment of Baldr and Hǫðr, transferring all of Baldr's positive qualities to Hǫðr - and then some! Saxo's Høtherus is the very image of chivalrous ideals, while Balderus functions much like a stereotypical saga berserk, with untamed libido to boot. The core narrative is of the berserk suitor type - blog post to come. Saxo's tale of Balderus and Høtherus is long and convoluted, involving a long series of battles, fantastical quests, Pagan gods, trios of supernatural women, all the good stuff.  Here's a summary for readers unfamiliar with the story:

Balderus, Othinus' son by a mortal woman, sees Nanna bathing and lusts after her. Nanna’s foster brother Høtherus, a splendid warrior and a man of exceptional eloquence, also wants to marry her. Høtherus meets forest maidens guiding the course of battles. They inform him of Balderus' plans and advise him against attacking a demigod. Even Nanna’s father Gevarus is afraid to displease Balderus, who, in the meantime, has presented himself as Nanna’s suitor, for Balderus is invulnerable and cannot be overpowered. However, as Gevarus tells Høtherus, there is a satyr called Mimingus, the owner of a sword that can kill Balderus and a bracelet that increases the wealth of him who bears it. To reach Mimingus, one must cross a land of perpetual frost. Høtherus overcomes all obstacles, gets the better of Mimingus, and obtains the treasures.

While Høtherus is away, Balderus invades Gevarus' country and sues for Nanna, who rejects him on the grounds that she is no match for a demigod, but apparently because she prefers Høtherus. Balderus, in league with Othinus and Thor, equips a fleet and attacks Gevarus. To everybody’s surprise (including Saxo’s), they are defeated and flee. Much later we find out that the forest maidens once gave Høtherus a coat of invulnerability. Høtherus marries Nanna, and they leave for Sweden. Balderus, although taunted by his enemies, has lost none of his fighting spirit. He returns, and this time Høtherus loses. But love proves to be more effective than swords, and now that Balderus has gained the upper hand of his opponent, he begins to pine away, tormented in his sleep by images of Nanna.

At this juncture we are told of earlier dynastic wars between Sweden and Denmark and about the treacherous Danes’ decision to elect Balderus their king. A third battle between Balderus and Høtherus ensues in which Høtherus is defeated. He retires to the wilderness and is, rather unaccountably, censured by his subjects for hiding himself. On his way to the wilderness, Høtherus met a group of forest maidens, seemingly different from those mentioned earlier. They assure Høtherus that all is not lost and that if he succeeds in partaking of Balderus' magic food, the victory will be his. The opponents meet again by chance. Høtherus inflicts a mortal wound on Balderus, who is visited in his dreams by Proserpina, and dies three days later.

Northern dreams

Dreams feature heavily in saga literature. They are many, and many of them are prophetic, which means that whatever the dreams imply will come to pass. Baldr's dreams are no different, which means that Baldr "is doomed from the start by the literary conventions", as John Lindow put it. Prophetic dreams occur regularly throughout Gesta Danorum as well. Many are pulled from the very same fabric as the Icelandic sagas, while others are local church traditions and even personal anecdotes from archbishop Absalon. As an extremely well read man of the church, Saxo was also familiar with prophetic dreams in hagiographic literature. This means that he was also aware of the fact, that not all dreams were trustworthy. Some might even be the work of demons assuming the appearance of saints or even Jesus, as in fx Vita Martini and De virtutibus Martini. We will see this demonic intrusion in Balderus' first dream.

Nightmares of Nanna

Balderus' first dream occurs after Høtherus had routed the gods and married Nanna. The fortune of war changed once more though, and Balderus defeated Høtherus, who fled from Sweden and was forced to take refuge with Gevarus. But victory alone did not satisfy Balderus:

"Idem laruarum Nanne speciem simulantium continua noctibus irritamenta perpessus adeo in aduersam corporis ualitudinem incidit, ut ne pedibus quidem incedere posset. Quamobrem biga rhedaue emetiendorum itinerum consuetudinem habere coepit. Tanta amoris ui suffusum pectus ad extremam pene eum tabem redegerat. Nihil enim sibi uictoriam dedisse credidit, cuius Nanna preda non fuerit."

He [Balderus] was constantly haunted at night by ghosts [laruarum] imitating the shape of Nanna, which caused him to fall into such an adverse state of health that his feet was unable to bear him. For this reason he developed a habit of travelling the path by chariot or carriage. So great was the power of the desire which soaked his heart, that it had nearly driven him to the edge of consumption. For he believed that victory had bestowed nothing on him, if Nanna were not the spoils of war.

Kauffmann believed Nanna's appearance to be the result of influence from continental romances, since it has "no evidence in the other sources". One wonders how much the lack of evidence in other sources really matter, since Gesta Danorum is the only source. Balderus' romantic affliction has often been compared to that of Freyr's in Skírnismál. The similarities are striking: both spy the object of their desire from afar, and both suffer negative consequences. Skírnismál is often thought to be influenced by medieval romances as well, though this has recently been refuted by Daniel Sävborg. Is the similarity between Gesta Danorum the result of borrowing or common tropes? We will never know.

An important thing that Kauffmann missed is that Balderus does not in fact see Nanna in his dreams, but ghosts imitating her shape. How is this possible? She does not play an active role in Saxo's narrative at this point, and it is possible that she has died off screen, so to speak. After all, Nanna’s role, like that of Baldr, is to die. But the use of the plural and the fact that the ghosts imitate Nanna's shape make that interpretation unlikely. Latin larva (pl. nom. larvae) means "ghost, evil spirit", and figuratively, "(terrifying) mask". Saxo uses the word five times in Gesta Danorum. The first time in book one as "mask", the rest as "ghost" in books two and three, of which the latter is the above quote. Before we look at book two, we will briefly examine how larvae are presented by three influental Latin authors, whose works we know Saxo was familiar with because he borrows from them.

The first is Apuleius, a Roman Platonist philosopher. Apuleius authored De Deo Socratis, a work on the existence and nature of demons. In this book, Apuleius writes:

"qui vero ob adversa vitae merita nullis sedibus incerta vagatione ceu quodam exilio punitur, inane terriculamentum bonis hominibus, ceterum malis noxium, id genus plerique Larvas perhibent [...] Non enim ex hac faeculenta nubecula et umida caligine conglobata, sicuti nubium genus est, sed ex illo purissimo aeris liquido et sereno elemento coalita eoque nemini hominum temere visibilia, nisi divinitus speciem sui offerant"

But those [spirits] who have no residence, and on account of their hostile ways of life are punished with uncertain wandering, like a kind of exile, are usually called ghosts [larvas], empty terrors to honest people, but harmful to the wicked [...] They [demons] are not accumulated from feculent vapors or humid mist as clouds are born, but formed from the most pure and serene element of clear air, and on this account they are not normally visible to humans, unless by divine command they allow themselves to be seen.

The second is Isidore of Seville, scholar, theologian and archbishop. Isidore authored (or compiled, rather) the encyclopedia Etymologiae. Drawing on Apuleius, Isidore writes:

"Larvas ex hominibus factos daemones aiunt, qui meriti mali fuerint. Quarum natura esse dicitur terrere parvulos et in angulis garrire tenebrosis."

 Ghosts, they sare, are demons made from people who were deserving of evil. It is said that their nature is to frighten small children and chatter in dark corners.

The third is one of Saxo's favourite authors, Martianus Capella, who in De Nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii writes of aerial spirits inhabiting the same celestial sphere as Luna, whom Martianus equates with Proserpina. These spirits are assigned to human bodies at the moment of conception. If they had conducted themselves honourably in life, they become guardian spirits, 

"si autem depravantur ex corpore, Larvae perhibentur"

but if they have been corrupted by the body, they are called ghosts.

Returning to Gesta Danorum, larvae appear in book two. Thorhilda, the wife of the Swedish king Hundingus, hated her stepsons Regnerus and Thoraldus. Thorhilda makes Regnerus and Thoraldus cattle herders, a degrading occupation for two princelings, in other to expose them to danger. Suanhuita, daughter of Hadingus the monster/godkiller travels to Sweden with her sisters to prevent the deaths of Regnerus and Thoraldus. She encounters them far away in a field, surrounded by a throng of various kinds of supernatural beings borrowed from Martianus Capella, including larvae.

Regnerus utters a verse lamenting the brother's condition, to which Suanhuita gives a lengthy response on how handsome Regnerus is. Good looks betraying the high birth of a disguised or enslaved person is a saga staple, and Saxo's tendency to amplify and vary expressions makes the passage kinda awkward. At least it's enough to make Regnerus blush(!) and deliver a short speech on how brave he is, despite his grimy clothes.

"Se ergo Thor deo excepto nullam monstrigene uirtutis potentiam expauere, cuius uirium magnitudini nihil humanarum diuinarumue rerum digna possit equalitate conferri. Sed neque laruas liuido tantum squalore terribiles a masculis debere pectoribus formidari, quarum effigies adulterino distincta pallore momentaneum corporis habitum ab aeris teneritudine mutuari consueuerit". 

He was therefore not frightened by any monster-bearing power except for the god Thor, whose vast strength nothing human or divine was fit to be compared to. The hearts of real men should not fear ghosts [laruas], made terrifying only by their malice and foulness, shades [effigies] distinguished by a false pallor, whose momentary corporeal appearance was normally borrowed from the soft air.

Saxo's choice of "effigies" as a word for "ghost, shade" is interesting here. It was used in the same way by Vergil and Ovid, but the word mainly means "copy, imitation, likeness, image". Note the similarity between these shades or imitations and the larvae imitating Nanna.

Regnerus' speech impresses Suanhuita, who gifts him a sword, utters a lot more poetry (enough for Saxo to stop bothering translating it) and throws off a disguise that she had apparently been wearing. Regnerus immediately falls in love with her, and then it's finally time for the two of them (or maybe only Suanhuita) to take on the monstrous hordes. After a night of busting ghosts, 

"luce reddita uarias laruarum formulas et inuisitata specierum figmenta passim aruis incidisse cognoscit. Inter quas et ipsius Thorilde crebris obfusa uulneribus effigies uisebatur."

light returned to reveal the various shapes of ghosts [laruarum] and strange appearances of phantoms fallen all over the fields. Among these could be seen the shape of Thorhilda herself, covered in wounds.

The episode clearly draws on the same understanding of larvae as the one presented by Apuleius, Isidore and Martianus Capella. Ghosts are really just demons made from air (Apuleius, Martianus Capella), that no real man should fear (Saxo), whose nature it is to frighten small children (Isidore), and who are only a real threat to the wicked (Apuleius).

What does that tell us about Balderus? The story of Suanhuita and Regnerus contrasts nicely with that of Balderus. Both feature an instant desire sparked by the sight of a woman, and the men in both stories are harassed by ghouls. But where Suanhuita and Regnerus sprang to action and hacked the demons to pieces, Balderus was disabled by the nightmares. In order to be incapacitated, unable to walk even, by the ghosts imitating Nanna, Balderus must at the very least be wicked, a fact we already knew from the rest of his characterization, and very likely also a scared little cry-baby!

Dreams of death

Balderus' second dream occurs after he has been shanked by Høtherus. Balderus chooses to carry on fighting the next day, ordering his litter to be carried to the battle front: 

"Postera nocte eidem Proserpina per quietem astare perspecta post triduum se eius complexu usuram denuntiat. Nec inane somnii presagium fuit. Nam Balderum elapso triduo nimius uulneris cruciatus absumpsit." 

The following night, Proserpina appeared to him in a dream standing behind him, and declared that in three days he would be in her embrace for her pleasure. It was not a vain dream vision, for after three days had elapsed, Balderus was killed by the excessive torture of his wound.

Translators have almost universally chosen to gloss Proserpina as Hel. The use of a Latin name isn't unusual for Gesta Danorum. Othinus is also called Pluto, among other names. As Frog has noticed, this dream is a reversal of the first dream. Desire to possess Nanna is exchanged for possession by Proserpina. The contents of Balderus' second dream must be at least partially informed by Norse material. We see Hel embracing dead warriors for her pleasure in other sources too, such as Ynglingatal 7, where Gná of Glitnir [= Hel] has the corpse of Dyggvi for [her] pleasure. 

Saxo knew plenty of Proserpina. We have already seen how she belonged to the same celestial sphere as the ghosts haunting Balderus, but she appears in many of the works known by Saxo such as Vergil's Aeneid, Horace's Carmina and so on. More importantly, Saxo knew Claudian's De Raptu Proserpine, in which Proserpina, the daughter of Jupiter and Juno, is abducted by Pluto and taken into the underworld. Juno is tormented by ill-omened dreams and visions of Proserpina, and wonders if a vain shadow deceives her ("an vana fallimur umbra"). It is possible that De Raptu Proserpine might have partially informed Balderus' dreams, but there is a more direct Classical parallel to be found in Saxo's favourite Roman work, Valerius Maximus' Facta et Dicta Memorabilia. There are two verbal borrowings from Valerius in the passage containing Balderus' second dream, both dealing with Roman civil wars. The second story from Valerius is a close parallel to Saxo's story:

"Sed quoniam diuitem Midae disertumque Platonis somnum adtigi, referam quam certis imaginibus multorum quies adumbrata sit. quem locum unde potius ordiar quam a diui Augusti sacratissima memoria? eius medico Artorio somnum capienti nocte, quam dies insecutus est, quo in campis Philippiis Romani inter se exercitus concurrerunt, Mineruae species oborta praecepit ut illum graui morbo implicitum moneret ne propter aduersam ualitudinem proximo proelio non interesset. quod cum Caesar audisset, lectica se in aciem deferri iussit. ubi dum supra uires corporis pro adipiscenda uictoria excubat, castra eius a Bruto capta sunt. quid ergo aliud putamus quam diuino numine effectum ne destinatum iam immortalitati caput indignam caelesti spiritu fortunae uiolentiam sentiret?"

But since I have mentioned how sleep brought riches to Midas and learning to Plato, I shall tell how the sleep of many people has been troubled by visions that revealed the truth. What better place could I start from than the most sacred memory of the divine Augustus? His doctor, Artorius, was sleeping on the night before the day when Roman armies fought against each other on the plains of Philippi. Minerva appeared to him and told him that although Augustus was afflicted with a serious illness, Artorius should advise him not to avoid the upcoming battle on the grounds of bad health. When Augustus heard this, he commanded his men to carry him into battle in his litter. While he was there, watching over things and overexerting himself to gain victory, his camp was captured by Brutus. How can we avoid thinking that the gods arranged this? They did not want a man who was already destined for immortality to experience the destructive force of fortune, since that would be unworthy of his heavenly spirit.

Both Augustus and Balderus is on campaign, both are carried into battle in their litter, and a goddess appearing in a dream plays a role in both stories. The Roman gods preserve Augustus and grant him victory; Balderus dies. A passage by Apuleius might be instructive here: 

"Nec aliud te in eodem Vlixe Homerus docet, qui semper ei comitem voluit esse prudentiam, quam poetico ritu Minervam nuncupavit." 

Nor does Homer teach you anything else with regard to the same Ulysses, in always representing Wisdom as his companion, whom he poetically calls Minerva.

It might not be too farfetched to imagine, that Saxo read Valerius' passage as Wisdom (Minerva) appearing before the Romans, and saving them. This would mean that Balderus is visited by Death - which is of course entirely congruent with what we know about Hel. It's not possible to say whether an otherwise unknown instance of Baldr seeing Hel in his dreams prompted Saxo to use the passage from Valerius Maximus, or if it's the other way round. This is not the only time Saxo used that passage either. Cnut the Great is similarly carried into battle in his litter, but unlike Balderus, Cnut is victorious. This repetition of phrases and characters in the Gesta Danorum, as Vilhelm Andersen put is, is crucial to understanding Gesta Danorum: "the legend [...] appears as a reflection or shadow of history. This fact is of importance in understanding the composition of Saxo's book". Cnut, a Christian empire builder, is a much more deserving candidate for associations with the victory of emperor Augustus. For Balderus, the Pagan demigod king, there can be only death.