Names of Óðinn in Gesta Danorum

Óðinn is the Norse deity who appears most frequently throughout the first nine books of Gesta Danorum. His name is variously rendered as Othinus, Othynus and Othin, and readers familiar with the Icelandic corpus will instantly recognize his many characteristics: The one-eyed old man appearing in many guises and under many names, riding a special horse, consulting oracles, granting courage, poetic ability and invulnerability to his chosen champions, ever anxious to have the spirits of the fallen dedicated to him etc., ie. the Óðinn from poetry and legendary sagas. Óðinn/Othinus appearing under strange names is familiar to us - but was he familiar to Saxo? Axel Olrik expressed serious doubt about the cleric's ability to recognize the deity in his source material:

"We recognize Odin easily enough; even the names under which he appears do not serve to hide him from us, but to reveal to us his true nature [...] this is not the case for Saxo; only a few times does he know with whom he is dealing, otherwise he is struck by uncomprehending amazement whenever he meets the tall one-eyed old man and beholds his supernatural power."

Olrik's view has sometimes been repeated by later scholars, but unfortunately, Olrik never really elaborated on how he had arrived at his conclusion. There is only one case where Olrik's view seems to hold true; unfortunately, there is no way to tell if it's due to Saxo or his source(s). The most recent discussion of Óðinn and his names in Gesta Danorum is Annette Lassen's 2011 study. Unfortunately, she passes over the Classical names that Saxo applies to Othinus, which, given the nature of Gesta Danorum, seems like a puzzling oversight. 

   

Pluto

At the end of book II, king Rolpho Krake is betrayed by his sister Sculda and her husband Hiarthwarus, governor of Sweden. The city Lethra comes under siege, during which the king's champion Biarco quoths: 

    Where are Götaland's commanders and Hiarthwarus' warriors?
    Let them come and pay for their courage with blood!
    Who hurl, who whirl the spears, but the descendants of kings?
    The freeborn initiate war: the most renowned nobility
    execute battle, a thing commoners never dare pursue,
    only their commanders risk the attempt.
    Illustrious princes perish. Behold, mighty Rolpho,
    your magnates have fallen, your loyal freeborn falter.
    Pluto seizes no base and obscure race for doom,
    not the cheap souls of plebeians, but snatches the powerful
    and fills up Phlegethon with famous figures.

Óðinn's preference for aristocrats and warriors can be found and inferred from many places in the Icelandic sources, but is most directly stated in the Eddic poem Hárbarðsljóð: "Óðinn owns the nobles who fall in battle". Phlegethon is best understood as one of several named Classical otherworld locations that Saxo used to gloss the vernacular Valhǫll.

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Upon learning that Gunno, lord of Telemark, and his son Grimo had entered and raided Ethascog, the young prince Olo became enraged and set out to put an end to the brigands. He entered their hidden fortification, broke the limbs of one of their servants, and fatally wounded Gunno and Grimo. With his dying breath, Grimo quoth: 

    Although our bodies are indeed crippled 

    and the draining blood has depleted our strength, 

    and life has been coaxed from the wound, 

    and pulsates barely felt in the mutilated chest, 

    the peril of our final hour, I remind you, 

    shall be made famous by our unshaken courage, 

    so that none can say that a harder battle, 

    a fiercer fight, was waged anywhere. 

    And when the burial mound rests our flesh, 

    this savage contest shall bring rewards 

    and perpetual fame for us who bore arms. 

    Let the first slash break the enemy's shoulders, 

    let the iron tear off both of his hands, 

    so that when Stygian Pluto receives us, 

    a similar demise may seize Olo, 

    a common death quiver over three, 

    and the ashes of three be buried in one single urn.

Father and son made one last desperate attempt at slaying Olo, but failed. Once again, Pluto is connected to a Classical afterlife location. Grimo conceives of Pluto (Óðinn) as receiving the fallen noblemen, an idea also reflected in poems such as Hákonarmál, Eiríksmál and many legendary sagas.

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In the aftermath of the carnage at Brawic, the victorious king Ringo ordered the body of his opponent Haraldus found, so that proper funerary rites could be carried out:

Believing that Haraldus' spirit must be appeased, he attached the horse which he rode to the royal chariot, placed a handsome golden saddle upon it and dedicated it to the king's glory. Then he performed his vows and added a prayer, that Haraldus on his horse might precede those who shared his fate on his journey to Tartarus, and at the house of Orcus' Pluto beseech him to grant a peaceful residence to friend and foe alike.

This is one of the rare instances where Saxo's adaptation and translation of an Old Norse text can be examined. Saxo's version goes back to the lost Skjǫldunga saga, but the passage also survives in Sǫgubrot af nokkrum fornkonungum. Here Hringr also provides Haraldr with horse and chariot, "and asked him to do as he wished, either ride or drive to Valhǫll" [ok bað hann gera hvárt, er hann vildi, ríða til Valhallar eða aka]. Tartarus, then, can securely be interpreted as one of several glosses for Valhǫll. Pluto is for the third time connected to a Classical afterlife location. In all three instances, Pluto appears as a fitting Latinized adaptation of Óðinn in his role of death god, receiving the fallen kings and noblemen in his hall.

Mars

Towards the end of the siege of Lethra (see above), king Ropho has fallen and the Swedes have overrun the defenders. Biarco quoths:

    But now, where is he, that the common people call Othin,
    powerful in arms, always content with one eye?
   Tell me, Ruta, I beg you, is there anywhere you can see him? 

    Ruta replied: 

    Bring your eyes closer and look through my arms akimbo,
    but first you must hallow your gaze with the sign of victory,
    if you wish to safely recognize Mars face to face.

Óðinn is directly equated with Mars in this exchange, and not without reason. It is one of the few times Óðinn appears in person on the field of battle. In Olrik's words, "he comes as the deity who seizes all those slain in battle, and brings his new retinue to Valhǫll. In addition, he is the god of war, the one who decides the outcome of battle".

Horrendum Frigge maritus

Immediately following Ruta's reply, Biarco responds:

    If I am able to behold the fearsome husband of Frigg, 

    he will by no means leave Lethra unharmed, no matter 

    how much he is protected by his white shield and turns round his tall horse: 

    it is right in war to knock down the war god.

Wouldn't you know, it's a kenning! Kennings for Óðinn do not usually identify him by his relation to Frigg, but a small handful exists, like frumver Friggjar used by Hallfreðr vandræðaskáld Óttarsson.

Divus belliger

"War god". Same stanza as above, last line. 

Rosterus, Rostarus

The first time we meet is Rosterus/Rostarus is in the wake of the defeat of the gods and the death of Balderus. An oracle informs Othinus that the Russian princess Rinda must bear Othinus a son who will avenge Balderus. Othinus unsuccesfully tries to woo the princess in various guises, each time receiving a slap in the face. In one of his attempts, he disguises himself as a metalworker, presenting Rinda with many intricate pieces of jewellery:

    He named himself Rosterus and claimed to be an experienced artificer.

The second time is in the aftermath of the battle of Ullaraker, waged by Regnerus Lothbrog and his sons against the Scanians. Syuardus received a terrible wound that wouldn't heal, until: 

a marvellously tall man was seen approach the sickbed. He promised that he would immediately enjoy sound health, if he would consecrate the souls of those men he was to slay in battle to him. He did not conceal his name, but went on to call himself Rostarus. Observing that he could obtain an enormous benefit at the expense of one tiny promise, Syuardus eagerly agreed to his request. Then the old man touched the bruised point of putrefaction, removed it with a sudden manipulation of his hand, and immediately stretched a scar across the wound. At last, after sprinkling powder on his pupils, the man left.

There is some debate to whether the correct forms truly are Rosterus/Rostarus. Many editors choose to interpret Rosterus/Rostarus as scribal mistakes and emend the text. The results are Rofterus/Roftarus, Latinized forms of Old Norse Hroptr, a well-known name for Óðinn. However, Sophus Bugge deemed two scribal mistakes to be unlikely, and the Oxford edition by Karsten Friis-Jensen & Peter Fisher retains Rosterus/Rostarus due these forms also being attested in Compendium Saxonis. Bugge derived the names from rosta, "fight, battle, turmoil, brawl", and suggested that the original Old Norse form was *Hrostr.  

Viator indefessus

 

After Othinus' advances had been denied by Rinda three times, Saxo relates that:

this unwearied wayfarer [viator indefessus] put on girl's clothes and sought out the king for the fourth time. 

While viator indefessus is not used as a name, Hilda Ellis Davidson suggested that this designation might have been motivated by the Óðinn-name Vegtamr. It might be of some significance that both viator indefessus and Vegtamr appear in narratives involving the death of Baldr.

Wecha

Still attempting to woo Rinda, Othinus finally gained access to her by disguising himself as a healer:

Because he was dressed almost as a woman, most people believed him to be one. He called himself Wecha, claimed he was a female healer, inspiring confidence in his profession by being most willing to help in such matters.

The name Wecha is an otherwise unattested feminine form of Old Norse vitki, "sorcerer". *Vekka < *vetka, *vitka, "sorceress". It has been suggested that Saxo's source or informant might originally have had Othinus appear as a *vitka, but this can't be confirmed. Othinus disguising himself as a female healer and calling himself Wecha also fits squarely with other on the nose pseudonyms such as Birch-bark Man (nǽframaðr) in the saga of Ǫrvar-Oddr or the three Covered Faces (Grímar) in Vǫlsa þáttr. 

Uggerus

During the reign of Frotho III, the king dissolved his marriage to his cheating wife Hanunda, the daughter of Hun, king of the Huns. This caused Hun to ally himself with Olimarus, king of the East, and the Huns and Easterners spent two years gathering a massive army. Olimarus commanded the navy consisting of no less than thirty thousand ships and nine million men, and Hun commanded the land army. After defeating Olimarus in a naval battle, Frotho opted to let starvation take care of the Huns. The army was unable to feed itself, and was eventually reduced to eating rotten garbage. Mass desertation followed, as entire companies left the army of king Hun.  

He was also abandoned by the seer Uggerus, a man whose unknown lifespan stretched beyond human boundaries. He sought out Frothi as a deserter, and informed him of all the Huns' preparations.

Uggerus is a Latinized form of Old Norse Yggr. Following Axel Olrik, Paul Hermann thought it unlikely that Saxo recognized Uggerus as a name for Othinus. However, nothing suggests that Saxo did not recognize the name either. 

Gestiblindus

In book 5, a terrible war erupts between king Alrico of Sweden and king Gestiblindus of Götaland. Being the weaker of the two, Gestiblindus seeks the help of Frotho III, promising to deliver himself and his realm to Danish king in return. The war ended when Alrico challenged Gestiblindus to single combat, but Frotho's champion Ericus fought in his stead. Alrico was slain by Ericus, who was severely hurt himself.

The plot and the name Gestiblindus has a close parallel in Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks, where king Gestumblindi has troubles with king Heiðrekr. After sacrificing to Óðinn, the god disguises himself as Gestumblindi and defeats king Heiðrekr in a famous riddle contest. Óðinn escapes in the shape of a falcon or hawk, but the enraged king strikes a blow to Óðinn's tailfeathers. In turn, Óðinn curses the king, who soon after perishes at the hands of his thralls.  

The two stories share many features, and Saxo certainly had access to and used a version of Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks or a Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks-like narrative. But can Gestiblindus really be identified as Oðinn? This appears to be the only instance where Olrik's idea of Saxo not recognizing Oðinn might have some merit to it; on the other hand, we don't know the details of Saxo's source.

Rotho

The Danes under Frotho IV had conquered Saxony and quelled several attempts at rebellion. Finally, Svertingus, a Saxon petty king, deceived Frotho by inviting him to a banquet and burning him inside the hall. Frotho was succeeded by his son Ingellus, who devoted his life to sloth and luxury, neglecting his duty to avenge his father and even marrying the daughter of Svertingus and keeping the seven sons of Svertingus at his court. The shameful state of affairs continued until Starcatherus arrived at a feast one day and severely rebuked the king through a string of poems, causing Ingellus to slaughter the sons of Svertingus, turning the feast into a bloodbath. It is in one of these poems that we hear of Rotho:   

    Tell me, Rotho, perpetual mocker of cowards, 

    whether you consider us to have made sufficient restitution for Frotho 

    by paying seven deaths as revenge for one?

The name has seen little recent discussion. Gudmund Schütte interpreted Rotho as a god venerated by the Skjǫldungar, and, somewhat puzzling, identified him with Freyr. Axel Olrik interpreted Rotho as a Latinized form of *Hroði, derived from the verb hrjóða, and glossed it as "Destroyer", which was accepted by Paul Hermann, Peter Fischer & Karsten Friis-Jensen.  

Bruno

After the age of the five kings, Haraldus Wartooth emerged as the sole ruler of Denmark. Haraldus enjoyed a particularly close bond to Othinus, the deity being responsible for his birth, instructing him in secret battle formations and granting Haraldus invulnerability in battle in return for having the spirits of the slain dedicated to him by Haraldus. Though the might of Denmark had been restored and Haraldus controlled the largest empire since the days of Frothi, the king's fortune would soon change:

At that time there was a certain Bruno, who was the sole person Haraldus made privy to all of his plans. Whenever he and Ringo had to exchange messages of a secret nature, they would confide in this man. He had obtained this degree of intimacy because they had been brought up together since the time they had shaken the same rattles. While enduring the constant toils of his journeys, he drowned in the waters of a certain river. Othinus assumed his name and appearance and carried out deceitful embassies, destroying the king's closest bond, and by his deception sowed such hostilities that from those tied together in mutual friendship and kinship, he generated a hardened hatred which, as it would seem, could not be satisfied without waging war. At first there grew unspoken disagreements between them until both sides made their inclinations known, their secret ill-will breaking out in public. And so they declared their hostility, and withdrew for sevens years to gather the instruments of war.

[...] But Haraldus, an aged man with failing sight, heard the mournful murmur of his men and understood that fortune had smiled on his victorius enemies. While riding his scythed chariot, he therefore asked Bruno, who were insidiously fulfilling the role of driver, to find out what kind of battle line Ringo was using in the formation of his army. The other's face broke out into a little smile, and he answered that the army was fighting in a horn-shaped formation. Upon hearing this, the king became afraid, and in the greatest astonishment inquired who could be responsible for instructing Ringo to arrange his army in such fashion, especially since Othynus was the teacher and inventor of this tactic, and no one but he had learnt this new pattern of warfare from him. 

When Bruno remained silent, it occured to the king that here was Othynus, a deity once friendly towards him and at present appearing in this changeable shape to either bestow or withdraw his help. He soon began to resolutely beseech him, since he had kindly aided the Danes before, to also bestow on them this final victory and let the completion of his favour match its beginning. In exchange, he promised that he would dedicate the spirits of the slain to him. But Bruno remained unmoved by the suppliant's prayers. He suddenly cast out the king from the chariot, rammed him to the ground, snatched away his mace as he fell and turned it at his head, killing him with his own weapon. Innumerable corpses surrounded the king's chariot, a dismal heap scaling the peaks of the wheels. The pile of cadavers even reached the level of the chariot's tongue. Almost twelve thousand nobles of Ringo's army had been killed on the battlefield, while about thirty thousand nobles fell on Haraldus' side, besides the massacre of the common folk.

Bruno is the Latinized form of Old Icelandic Brúni which is found in Sǫgubrot's account, and also listed as a name for Óðinn in AM 748 I b 4to and AM 757 a 4to.

Gradivus

Towards the end of book eight, the age of legendary pagan heroes is coming to an end. Starcatherus, the eldritch pagan killing machine, has finally grown weary of war and his supernatural old age. While trying to convince Hatherus to end his life, he recounts his deeds in an epic poem:

    But I was, as I recall, consigned by Fate at birth 

    to pursue war and to die in war, to mingle in the turmoil, 

    pay attention to weapons, and spend a life engaged in slaughter. 

    Deprived of rest, I frequented the encampments, and loathing peace 

    I grew old under your banners, Marching God of War [Gradivus], in the greatest peril. 

    I have considered it praiseworthy to fight and conquer fear, 

    and shameful to remain idle, illustrious to cause abundant carnage 

    and pile massacre upon massacre.

It's often assumed that Saxo had access to poems ascribed to Starkaðr that are now lost to us. Saxo claimed to have translated these poems, which makes it possible that Gradivus is a gloss of some name for Óðinn, just as Saxo glossed Hel as Proserpina. In any case, Gradivus, an epithet for Mars, must emphasize Óðinn's martial role.

Closing remarks:

Óðinn's names in Gesta Danorum are a mixed bag. Some are well known, while others are unattested in the Icelandic text corpus, but aligning with the god's semantic centre(s). The most interesting and understudied are the Latin names. Pluto clearly refers to Óðinn's role as god of death, receiving the fallen heroes in the afterlife, whereas Mars, Gradivus and divus belliger emphasize Óðinn's martial aspect. I do not recognize Olrik's "uncomprehending amazement" in Saxo's treatment and translation of Óðinn's names. Saxo must have had a clear vision of Óðinn as psychopomp and war god, faithfully and clearly conveyed by his choice of Classical names and epithets.